This article examines key approaches to the study of gender in contemporary sociology. Three main theories are highlighted: the social construction of gender, gender as a stratification category, and gender as a cultural metaphor. It is shown that gender studies contribute to a rethinking of traditional sociological problems of social stratification, the division of labor, power and property, and socialization processes from the perspective of gender differences and interactions. The innovative nature of the gender approach is emphasized, consisting in interpreting gender inequality as a socio-historically determined phenomenon reproduced by patriarchal models of society and science. It is noted that the diversity of theoretical approaches reflects the complexity of gender issues and simultaneously points to the need for a critical choice of methodology, avoiding radicalization and politicization of the issue. It is concluded that gender analysis not only expands the subject area of sociology but also opens up new perspectives for the study of social structure, cultural norms, and gender interactions.

Keywords: gender, social construction, stratification, cultural metaphor, feminism, culture.

Introduction

In recent decades, gender issues have assumed a prominent place in the social sciences and humanities. Increased interest in this topic is linked to globalization processes, changing cultural and social practices, and the need to rethink traditional approaches to understanding the roles of men and women in society. Gender is viewed not only as a biological given but also as a socio-cultural construct that defines a system of roles, norms, and values.

The purpose of this article is to analyze the main theories of gender and their significance for modern sociological science. The scientific novelty of this work lies in its emphasis on comparing various approaches to gender and revealing their potential for studying social structures, institutions, and cultural practices. This not only expands the subject area of sociology but also reveals new perspectives in understanding social stratification, power, property, and the processes of individual socialization.

Main Content

The widespread adoption of the category «gender» in the research of scholars from various countries illustrates the impact of globalization and the academic community's desire to standardize conceptual frameworks. One of the major theories, the sociology of gender, examines how culture and social structure mediate the biological differences between men and women. However, gender issues are not always central to the work of leading contemporary sociologists. The occasional inclusion of gender aspects in the analysis of social interaction, found in classical works, allows for some theoretical generalizations.

Gender is a sociological concept that denotes the set of social and cultural norms, rules, and roles that society ascribes to people based on their biological sex. At first glance, it may seem that the behavior, thinking, and feelings of men and women are determined by nature itself. However, ethnographers and cultural scientists have long noted that the forms of life organization, diet, clothing, professions, and activities of men and women are not universal: they vary significantly not only between societies but also within a single society at different historical stages. Gender studies aim to understand how society constructs the social roles of men and women and the consequences this has for society as a whole, family, work life, culture, and individual development. Today, it is impossible to imagine professional research in the social sciences and humanities without taking a gender perspective [1]. Thus, the concept of «gender» encompasses not only the psychological but also the social and cultural characteristics of men and women. Distinguishing between sex and gender is fundamentally important, as many differences between men and women are determined by factors not directly related to biology.

The gender approach emphasizes the intrinsic value of women's personalities, recognizing their inalienable right to creative development and freedom of expression. At the same time, feminists are united in their critique of patriarchal culture, built on male dominance and the identification of «truly human» exclusively with masculine characteristics. From the perspective of the Marxist tradition, gender inequality was viewed in close connection with class inequality, and gender issues were subordinated to socioeconomic ones. Although Marx noted in The German Ideology that the first form of private property and division of labor was slavery in the family, where «wife and children are the slaves of man», he did not subsequently return to this issue. So-called «socialist feminology» sought to combine radicalism with Marxism: both class and gender were conceptualized as political mechanisms of oppression to be eliminated, and the distinction between male and female was deemed socially irrelevant [2].

In the second half of the 19th century, against the backdrop of the industrial and social revolutions in Europe, classical social theory emerged, which presented the separation of male and female roles as a natural and sacred order. According to this tradition, women's self-realization was conceived exclusively within the domestic sphere. Overall, it can be noted that a significant portion of the sociological concepts of the time either completely ignored women or assigned them secondary roles. In the 20th century, in contrast to the idea of the biological determinacy of gender hierarchy, the theory of the «social construction of gender» emerged. It was based on three key sources: P. Berger and T. Luckmann's concept of the social construction of reality, which asserts the dual objective and subjective nature of social reality; T. Parsons and R. Bales's theory of sex roles; I. Goffman's dramatic interactionism; and G. Garfinkel's ethnomethodology, which made it possible to identify the mechanisms by which gender relations are formed. According to Goffman, gender is not a predetermined entity, but an achieved social status that is formed through everyday interaction and cultural practices [3].

Thus, gender can be understood as an institutionalized model of social relations between men and women. It is constructed, firstly, through socialization, the division of labor, the system of gender roles, the functioning of the family and the media; Secondly, at the individual level, through consciousness, acceptance of societal norms, and adaptation to them. Constructing gender means reproducing differences between men and women that are not determined by nature but are created socially and culturally. Various theories explaining the process of gender identification interpret gender as a system of interpersonal interactions, during which notions of masculinity and femininity as basic categories of social order are reinforced and reproduced. The fundamental thesis of social constructivism, «gender is not given at birth, but acquired through social interactions», echoes Simone de Beauvoir's famous statement: «One is not born a woman, one becomes a woman» [4].

In addition to the biological and social dimensions of gender inequality, feminist theory has also identified a symbolic-cultural aspect. Masculine and feminine exist in cultural-symbolic orderings: «masculine — rational — spiritual — cultural» is contrasted with «feminine — sensual — bodily — natural». These binary oppositions reinforce value orientations in which masculine is interpreted as positive and significant, and feminine as secondary and subordinate. Thus, many social phenomena and concepts acquire a distinct gender connotation [5].

These approaches are not mutually exclusive, but rather complement the overall understanding of gender as a complex, multidimensional phenomenon. Despite the diversity of theoretical and empirical approaches, they are united by the recognition that gender and power relations between men and women are among the defining organizational principles of society. This necessitates rethinking traditional sociological problems through the prism of gender: issues of social stratification, social structure, the division of labor, power and property, and the socialization of the individual. Furthermore, a gender lens allows for the addition of new problematic areas to existing knowledge, particularly relevant to women and their social experience [6]. The radical or moderate approach of feminologists to rethinking the history of gender relations determines whether gender theory is viewed as one approach within the existing structure of social knowledge or as a fundamentally new paradigm capable of changing the very understanding of social cognition [7].

The innovativeness of the gender approach is manifested in the desire to provide a social, socioeconomic, and cultural explanation for the phenomenon of gender inequality. It is emphasized that such inequality is not natural or biologically determined, but arose historically in the context of a patriarchal society and was reproduced through patriarchal models of culture and science. The gender approach, firstly, emphasizes the intrinsic value of women, recognizing their right to development, creativity, and freedom of expression. Secondly, proponents of this approach are united in their critique of traditional patriarchal culture, based on male dominance and the reduction of universal human experience to male characteristics [8]. The diversity of gender theories highlights the complexity and multilayered nature of the issue itself, as well as persistent attempts to understand and resolve it through sociological research. When choosing a methodology, it is especially important to avoid excessive politicization of the issue and radical distortions that could transform scientific analysis into an ideological position.

Conclusion

The analysis revealed that gender is not only a biological characteristic but also a complex socio-cultural construct that influences the formation of social structures, the distribution of power and property, socialization processes, and cultural norms. An examination of three main theories of the social construction of gender, gender as a stratification category, and gender as a cultural metaphor allows for a deeper understanding of the mechanisms of reproduction of gender inequality and the identification of its historical and cultural foundations.

The gender approach makes a significant contribution to the development of sociology, opening up new research horizons and complementing traditional knowledge with questions that are particularly relevant from the perspective of women. It not only expands the subject area of ​​sociological science but also contributes to the formation of a more holistic understanding of social reality, where gender interaction is considered a key organizing principle.

Funding

This research has been/was/is funded by the Science Committee of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Grant AP26101317. The influence of cultural values on the formation of gender roles of the inhabitants of the southern regions of Kazakhstan: traditional and innovative approaches

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